Syllabus

Hydrography in the Barsnesfjord

Organisation

• Student preparation time: In addition to working hours below
• Lectures and exercises: 170 hours (compulsory)
• Fieldwork and excursion: 21 days (compulsory)
• Journal and examination preparation: 8 days preparation time
• Semester work preparation: 10 days (compulsory)
• Examination I (counting one third of the final grade): Field journals (compulsory)
• Examination II (counting one third of the final grade): 4 hours written (compulsory)
• Examination III (counting one third of the final grade): Journals plus 30 minutes semester work presentation, followed by 30 minutes oral examination (compulsory)

Voluntary language class

Certificate on 20 - 25 hours introductory crash course (user course) on every-day-Norwegian. Students might take an additional 10ECTS language class parallel to the "From Mountain to Fjord"-study. This language class needs to be organised individually upon arrival.

Significance

“The Present is the Key to the Past” (James Hutton 1726-1797).

Ecology describes and tries to understand the coupling of life within and between ecosystems. In Norway, these ecosystems range from freshwater to marine, and from mountains to the shores of the ocean, creating gradients of change. The documentation of such gradational change allows drawing conclusions about the state of the environment.

Geology mostly deals with the interpretation of the record of recent and ancient environmental change. The minute timing of the historical succession of these changes allows not only to document such changes but also to interpret their sources. The signal of environmental change is transported via runoff to basins, i.e. lakes, fjords (especially in Norway) and estuaries, where deposition occurs. The change within the sedimentary signals can be traced back to their sources, allowing reconstructing ecosystem change through industrial and pre-industrial times.

This study focuses on the interaction of ecological documentation and geological source interpretation of recent and ancient environmental change.

The main concept is:

• To understand the formation of selected ecosystems based on bedrock geology, glacial geology and fjord hydrography
• To describe the selected ecosystems using vegetation ecology, fjord biology and limnology investigation
• To conclude with the significance of fjord and freshwater sedimentology for the interpretation of environmental change along ecological gradients.

The course will thus follow the cycle of disciplines ranging from the documentation of environmental change within ecosystems and the resulting signals, via transport and alteration of these signals on gradients from mountain to fjord, to the deposition of these signals and their interpretation from the sediments back to their sources. The understanding of the total process provides an effective tool for the identification and timing of recent and ancient environmental change.

The cycles will be followed through the landscape and aquatic environments of Western Norway, with spatial gradients visible over short distances and with sources located in the vicinity of the sinks. The close relationship provides the unique opportunity to study sedimentary and ecological processes from mountain to fjord and from source to sink at great detail, and enables us to relate the resulting signals to their sources, both spatially and temporally.

Introduction week – Basic language skills

• Responsible professors: Jan Olav Fretland
• Lectures and exercises: 20 hours optional (recommended)
• Fieldwork and excursion: none
• Credits: optional
• Evaluation: optional
• Grade: passed/not passed

Concept

The students will be trained in basic Norwegian language and communication skills including: daily routines, small talk, phone calls, shopping, food preparation and newspaper reading. The theoretical lessons are accompanied by real situation training. A short, optional examination will conclude the language class.

Block I: Geological processes

• Lectures and exercises: 45 hours (compulsory)
• Fieldwork and excursion: 10 days
• Credits: 10ECTS
• Evaluation: Field journals and reports
• Grade: A-F (counting one third of the final grade)

Concept

Prior to the geological part of the course, the students are introduced to the significance of the course, the importance of gradients and the interconnection between the different disciplines. The geological programme starts with a presentation of the bedrock geology of Western Norway. Rock forming minerals are discussed. The evolution from protolithic rocks to different grades of metamorphism is reconstructed within the plate tectonic framework of the area, including a field outline of collision processes that occurred during the Caledonian orogeny. The bedrock geology will then be linked to processes in sedimentary basins prior to and following metamorphic changes.

The understanding of the sedimentary processes will be based on a comparison of material originating from recent fjord sediments and material gathered from ancient, sedimentary sequences. This includes a biological approach to the formation of recent and ancient deposits. During this block fjord sediment cores are taken and investigated for facies change. These cores are analysed throughout the semester, giving the opportunity to understand the sediment signal of different biotic and abiotic change while going on with the respective lessons. Core interpretation of environmental change is summarised during the last block, following teaching in fjord biology.

Block II: Ecological and surface processes

• Lectures and exercises: 60 hours (compulsory)
• Fieldwork and excursion: 8 days
• Credits: 10ECTS
• Evaluation: 4 hour written examination
• Grade: A-F (counting one third of the final grade)

Concept

The students follow the glacial formation of particulate matter, its transport through runoff and rivers, the deposition in lakes and its influence on vegetation. Spatial and temperature gradients are reconstructed along gradational changes in micro-climate with distance from glaciers and elevation. The class starts with fieldwork in the Nigardsbreen area where runoff is glacially controlled.

The fieldwork experience is accompanied by a theoretical approach to glaciology including formation, movement and mass balance of glaciers. The connection between glacial history and climate change is illustrated using geomorphologic features, the record of shoreline displacement and the reconstruction of the marine limit. The spatial changes are related to temporal changes throughout the Holocene and Pleistocene. Ecological gradients are worked out within the framework of vegetation ecology across vegetation zones and regions. They are related to the local climate and runoff situation. The analysis of gradient patterns is used to understand the distribution of floristic elements, ecosystems and the vegetation dynamics in Western Norway.

Besides the purely floristic elements, the record of changes in vegetation consists of direct signals like pollen and indirect signals like changes in runoff due to changes in vegetation cover (and thus climate) over time. These signals of temporal change are transported by rivers and deposited in lake sediments as are the signals from glacial change. In the Austerdalen valley system the students will follow gradients in theory and praxis, reconstructing the build up and retreat of the "Little Ice Age" based on geomorphology, vegetation ecology and the lake sediment record of the Veitastrondvatnet and the Hafslovatnet.

The students learn thus about the functioning of the river transport system and the interpretation of environmental change from sediments recovered from different lake environments. In this context, attention is drawn to man-made disturbances in Norwegian freshwater systems like regulation of water-courses with special focus on hydroelectric power and the unfortunate occurrence of the salmon parasite Gyrodactylus salaris.

Block IIIa: Fjord processes

• Lectures and exercises: 65 hours (compulsory)
• Fieldwork and excursion: 3 days
• Credits: 10ECTS (of 30ECTS) together with Block IIIb
• Evaluation: Journals
• Grade: Part of the final Block III evaluation; prerequisite for attending Block IIIb

Concept

Fjord and lake basins are the final sink of particulate matter transported from land-based sources on a long term perspective. The short term influence from land areas is reflected in changes of the fjord hydrography and fjord biology. The complexity of these changes is even enhanced by marine processes within the fjord basin and the influence from the open sea. Fjord basins are ideal geological investigation areas where most of the signals originating from environmental change are trapped in the sediment. The full understanding of the sedimentary record requires an understanding of the Fjord hydrography and fjord biology.

Water column changes are mostly reflected in seasonal changes of the physical properties of the fjord water (salinity, temperature, density, oxygen zonation) and the general wind- and/or temperature-generated fjord current pattern including estuarine circulation, intermediate water circulation, renewal of basin water, and tidal currents and maelstroms. All these variations have a direct influence on the fjord biology, in addition to seawater composition (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide), red-ox potential, nutrients supply, and pollution. The fjord biology part is mainly focussing on phytoplankton and their role within the fjord food-web. This focus is based on the fact that some phytoplankton groups, especially diatoms that are the most pronounced group of marine fjord organisms leaving a distinct seasonal signal in the high resolution fjord sediments.

As the occurrence of phytoplankton is strongly connected to seasonality, fjord sediments will reflect a detailed record of environmental change, allowing discriminating between terrestrial and marine sources. This strong relationship leads to the conclusion of the “From Mountain to Fjord” course, looking at sediments as an overall basis for the interpretation of the sources of atmospheric, land derived and marine environmental change through space and time. This conclusion is illustrated by the final interpretation of the sediment cores taken in the beginning of the course.

Block IIIb: Conclusion: binding the topics together

• Lectures and exercises: none
• Fieldwork and excursion: none
• Credits: 10ECTS together with Block IIIa
• Evaluation: 30 minutes presentation of the semester work entitled: “Binding the topics together”; followed by a 30 minute oral examination. Journal from Block IIIa count 40%.
• Grade: A-F (counting one third of the final grade)

Concept

The semester work gives the students the opportunity to bind together the contents taught within the study. The students or student groups (of maximum two students per group) choose individually at least two of the course-topics and interpret their interconnection along temporal and/or spatial gradients. Supervision occurs individually depending on the chosen topic.

After a preparation time of 8 days, the students give a 30 minute oral presentation of their semester work in front of a public audience consisting of the supervisors involved and the other “From Mountain to Fjord” students. The audience has the opportunity to ask questions. The presentation is followed by a non-public, 30 minute long oral examination. Questions are asked about the broader context of the chosen topic of the semester work. Grades are given individually.

Literature

The content of the study is mainly based on results from ongoing research of the scientists involved in the teaching. Literature will thus include a variety of unpublished results and manuscripts provided to the students during the study. These will change from year to year and are not included in the list of literature below.

In addition, a summary is given below of basic references used during the preparation of the different lectures. These are no recommendations for student readings, although the students might use these references or any additional literature for reading about the topics included in the “From Mountain to Fjord” concept.

Literature that will be distributed during the study in addition to the unpublished material mentioned above is marked with three asterisks (***).

Bedrock geology

• Dietrich R, Skinner BJ 1979: Rock and rock minerals. Wiley and Sons.
• (***) Excerpt from Varjo U, Tietze W 1987: Norden – man and environment. Gebrüder Bornträger, Stuttgart.
• Park RL 2001: Foundations of structural geology. Nelson Thornes.
• (***) Henriksen H manuscript: The geological evolution of Western Norway during the last 500 million years focusing on the dynamic aspects and plate tectonics.

Glacial geology

• (***) Mangerud J 1991: The Last Interglacial/Glacial Cycle in Northern Europe. In: LCK Shane and EJ Cushing (eds.): Quaternary Landscapes. University of Minnesota Press, p.38-73.
• (***) Nesje A, Kvamme M, Rye N 1991: Holocene glacier and climate history of the Jostedalsbreen region, western Norway; evidence from lake sediments and terrestrial deposits. Quaternary Science Reviews 10, 87-114.
• (***) Nesje A, Dahl SO 1993: Late glacial and Holocene glacier fluctuations and climate variations in western Norway: a review. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 255-261.
• Lowe JJ, Walker MJC 1997: Reconstructing Quaternary environments. Longman Group Ltd., Essex, 446 pp.
• (***) Aa AR, Sønstegaard E 2001: Middle Weichselian interstadial sediments in Sogndalsdalen, western Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 81, 17-23.

Vegetation ecology

List not available, yet.

Limnology

• Faugli PE, Lund C, Rye N 1991: Jostedalen, Western Norway – natural sciences and hydropower. NVE, Statkraft, University of Bergen, Norway, 70pp.
• Økland J 2001: Lakes and rivers (in Norwegian). Gyldendal, Oslo, 132 pp.

Fjord hydrography

• Syvitski JPM, Burell DC, Skei JM 1987: Fjords – processes and products. Springer Verlag, New York, 379 pp.
• Garrison T 1993: Oceanography – an invitation to marine science. Wadsworth Inc., Belmont, California, 540 pp.

Fjord biology

• Syvitski JPM, Burell DC, Skei JM 1987: Fjords – processes and products. Springer Verlag, New York, 379 pp.
• Garrison T 1993: Oceanography – an invitation to marine science. Wadsworth Inc., Belmont, California, 540 pp.

Fjord sedimentology

• (***) Paetzel M, Schrader H 1991: Heavy metal (Zn, Cu, Pb) accumulation in the Barsnesfjord: Western Norway. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 71, 65-73.
• Paetzel M, Schrader H 1992: Recent environmental changes recorded in anoxic Barsnesfjord sediments: Western Norway. Marine Geology 105, 23-36.
• (***) Paetzel M, Schrader H, Croudace I 1994: Sewage history in the anoxic sediments of the fjord Nordåsvannet, western Norway: (I) dating and trace metal accumulation. The Holocene 4, 290-298.
• (***) Paetzel M, Schrader H 1995: Sewage history in the anoxic sediments of the fjord Nordåsvannet, western Norway: (II) the origin of the sedimented organic matter fraction. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 75, 146-155.
• (***) Paetzel M, Nes G, Leifsen LØ, Schrader H 2003: Sediment pollution in the Vågen, Bergen Harbour, Norway. Environmental Geology 48, 476-483.
• (***) Paetzel M, Schrader H 2003: Natural vs human induced facies change in recent, shallow water sediments of the Store Lungegårdsvannet (Western Norway). Environmental Geology 43, 484-492.
• (***) Van Breugel Y, Paetzel M, Schouten S & Sinninghe Damsté JS 2004: What can a fjord tell us about carbon cycle changes during natural greenhouse conditions in the earth history? Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Annual Report 2004, 50-52.
• (***) Van Breugel Y, Schouten S, Paetzel M, Nordeide R & Sinninghe Damsté JS 2005: The impact of recycling of organic carbon on the stable carbon isotopic composition of dissolved inorganic carbon in a stratified marine system (Kyllaren fjord, Norway). Organic Geochemistry 36, 1163-1173.
• (***) Van Breugel Y, Schouten S, Paetzel M, Ossebaar J & Sinninghe Damsté JS 2005: Reconstruction of ?13C of chemocline CO2 (aq) in past oceans and lakes using the ?13C of fossilized isorenieratene. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 235, 421-434.